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Beauty of bioplastics
02-MAR-2005

Compostable packaging sees a bright future ahead

Compostable plastic is a relatively
new, environmentally friendly option for packaging material. Yet how popular
and applicable is it proving to be? A German study and wider European experience
provide some clues.

The world produces over 200 million tonnes of plastic each year. Most post-consumer
plastic products are still not reused or recovered, but are dumped in landfills.
In addition, any material recycling or energy recovery often compromise the
environmental effects. One contribution to a more sustainable recovery of plastic
waste might well be the use of compostable plastics. Products could then be
recovered after use by composting or anaerobic fermentation ¿ though the
latter currently has some limitations due to process technology. Thus, a major
proportion of the plastic waste stream could be re-integrated into the natural
carbon cycle ¿ with the special advantage of being carbon-neutral for those
materials derived from renewable resources.

NEW CLASS OF PLASTICS

This new class of compostable plastics contains a variety of different materials.
Many are made of renewable resources such as starch, cellulose and other polysaccharides,
fibres, proteins and plant oils. The most prominent materials based on renewable
resources in the marketplace are provided by:

• Novamont (Mater Bi^®, starch)


• Plantic Technologies Ltd (Plantic^TM, starch)



• Rodenburg (Solanyl^®, starch)



• Natureworks LLC (formerly Cargill Dow: Natureworks^® PLA, polylactic
  acid)



• Innovia Films (formerly UCB: Natureflex^®, cellulose)



• Procter & Gamble (Nodax^® PHA, polyhydroxy alkanoates).

Ecoflex^® from BASF represents a small
group of compostable plastics from fossil resources (a type of co-polyester).
In many cases, fossil resources are necessary to complement renewable resources
in order to achieve the technical performance required for products such as
packaging. Ecoflex and similar products are compostable just like those materials
based on renewable resources ¿ biodegradability is a result of a polymer¿s chemical
structure and is independent of the material¿s origin.¹

WHAT IS A COMPOSTABLE PLASTIC?

A product¿s biodegradable nature can be utilized in waste management. If materials
biodegrade at rates similar to those of, for example, vegetable waste, they
are considered `compostable¿. Like biowaste (the biodegradable fraction of waste)
from households, such products can be treated in composting plants.

Vanishing act: a compostable cup biodegrades over 1, 15,

30 and 50 days.

PHOTO: NATUREWORKS

The most important application of such plastics in the short and medium term
is in the packaging sector. EU institutions have acknowledged the biological
recovery of compostable packaging as a means to fulfil the requirements of the
European Directive on Packaging and Packaging Waste 94/62/EC and its amendment
2004/12/EC.²

The performance of compostable plastic products during biological waste treatment
depends primarily on their rapid disintegration and complete biodegradation
within a given time frame. This has been standardized by working groups on national
and international standards.³ These
standards follow the same rationale; in order to guarantee their safe recovery,
materials have to be characterized with respect to the following four categories:

• chemical composition, including heavy metals and organic pollutants



• inherent and ultimate biodegradability as established in laboratory
  tests



• disintegration within a defined time frame



• ecotoxicity of the resulting compost.

All these requirements have to be fulfilled at the same time in order to qualify
a plastic material used in packaging as `compostable¿.

As an example, the British and European Standard BS EN 13432 has been developed⁴
to support and ensure the safe biological recovery of compostable packaging
and thus implement the regulation provided by Directives 94/62/EC and 2004/12/EC.
Figure 1 shows a typical degradation curve of a compostable plastic tested according
to EN 13432.

CERTIFICATION OF COMPOSTABILITY

To guarantee compliance with waste management requirements, the bioplastic
and composting industries have jointly developed a certification scheme for
products for which these new plastics are used, as packaging by retailers, for
example. The scheme includes a logo to demonstrate a product¿s certification.

The scheme provides an independent third-party certification of compostable
plastic products and helps to fulfil producer responsibility beyond the self-declaration
mechanism of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive. A voluntary Environmental
Agreement has been signed by the most important producers (BASF, Cargill Dow
[Natureworks], Novamont, Rodenburg) and officially acknowledged by the European
Commission.⁵ The recovery of certified
compostable plastics is likely to be eligible to fulfil the quota for the next
amendment of the Packaging Waste Directive ¿ the subject of recent discussions
within the EU and Member States.

In addition, a technical framework has been provided by co-operation between
EU certification institutions. This joint approach is so far supported by DIN
CERTCO (Germany), the Composting Association (UK), the Keurmerk Instituut (the
Netherlands) and the Polish Packaging Institute COBRO.

A co-operation network of certification institutions has also been established
at a global level to facilitate trade and the application of certified products
by mutual recognition of others¿ certificates.⁶
A website (www.iccn.org) has
been launched to provide information about the network.

Current members of the International Compostability Certification Network (ICCN)
and co-operating institutions include:

• DIN CERTCO, Europe



• Biodegradable Products Institute (BPI), US



• Biodegradable Plastics Society (BPS), Japan



• Biodegradable Materials Group (BMG), China ¿ agreement with BPS about mutual
  recognition of test reports



• Environmentally Biodegradable Plastics Association (EBPA), Taiwan ¿ Memorandum
  of Understanding about future co-operation.

The worldwide co-operation of certification systems and the mutual recognition
of certificates among institutions will support both the application of certified
materials and the establishment of biological recovery systems for plastic products
qualified as compostable. The ICCN invites further countries to participate
and negotiations are underway with institutions in several countries both at
an EU and a global level.⁷

PRACTICALITY OF THE BIOLOGICAL RECOVERY OPTION

Once a system for the testing, certification and labelling of compostable products
have been established and the compostability of certified products have been
acknowledged by operators of composting plants and others, there remains one
basic question about the possible organic recovery of these products.

Is it feasible to collect such materials via the `biobin¿, an extra bin supplied
to households for the separate collection of biowaste? In other words, will
consumers sort them separately into the biobin and not put in traditional plastic
packaging? Or will they be confused by the new option? Most of the new products
cannot be distinguished easily from conventional plastics just by their look
or touch.

A clear logo represents an important means of differentiation. To make things
work, it is necessary to communicate information about the logo and the new
approach to consumers, local authorities and composting plant operators.⁸

THE KASSEL EXPERIENCE

The German Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture funded a study
of this problem, which was carried out between 2001 and 2003 in the city of
Kassel. Kassel is located in the middle of Germany and is home to 200,000 inhabitants
of average social and financial background.

The scheme provides a third-party certification for compostable plastics

A range of about a dozen different certified products were delivered along
routine distribution channels to some 80 participating retailers and sold to
consumers. Based on information that had been provided, consumers were expected
to sort labelled packaging into the biobin after use and to avoid disposing
of conventional plastic items in this bin.

Households were provided with an information brochure together with a compostable
bag for the collection of biowaste (a `biobag¿).⁹
During the campaign, several press articles featured the project and some local
TV stations reported its progress. A three-metre high display of product samples
was showcased for several weeks in public places such as the town hall, university
cafeteria and a central bank office.

Expensive methods of communication such as TV advertisements were avoided in
order to obtain a realistic picture of the feasibility of informing consumers
that could be cost-effectively extended to the whole of Germany. The communication
cost of approximately E2.25 per inhabitant was considerable. However, given
the duration of the project (21 months) and the potential savings from economies
of scale, the Kassel approach seems suitable for implementation at a national
level, according to the experts involved from the waste management service company,
Interseroh GmbH.

Consumer reactions

Market research involving 600 interviews carried out in two waves during the
project revealed enthusiastic reaction from consumers to the new product range.
Consumers strongly supported the idea of replacing conventional plastic packaging
with bioplastics (Table 1). They also liked the idea of composting in order
to close the material cycle. More than 80% of customers who purchased products
in biopackaging were (very) satisfied with the performance of the packaging
and 89% stated they would buy them again.

Several people even stated that they would spend more money on a product if
it was packaged in bioplastics. Although this statement might be questioned
in many cases, it does provide evidence that customers (especially those of
high-priced products) might be willing to spend a little bit more for an environmentally
friendly packaging. But this is provided the additional costs of the packaging
are not shown separately but included in the price of the product.

Especially interesting was the response when people were asked to compare compostable
plastic packaging to other types of material in terms of environmental friendliness.
Bioplastics were ranked as even more environmentally friendly even than returnable
glass packaging ¿ a surprising result given that the latter is usually considered
by far the most environmentally friendly option (Table 2).

Waste management in the Kassel project

Certified compostable packaging and biowaste were collected from households
in biobins and shipped to a composting plant in Göttingen. Biowaste from
Kassel has been processed here since its separate collection was introduced
in 1994. In this respect, Kassel ranks about average in Germany, where around
80% of the municipalities provide an extra biobin to inhabitants. Although biobins
tend not to have been introduced in areas such as big cities with a high density
of population, about 70% of German citizens have access to a biobin.

In the Kassel project, the municipal waste hauler Stadtreiniger Kassel and
the waste management service company Interseroh GmbH were responsible for organizational
and educational matters. Scientific studies by the Bauhaus University of Weimar
included comparisons of biowaste quality before and during the project: every
four to six weeks, the waste was sorted and analysed with respect to six different
fractions.

No increase in `missthrows¿ (i.e. materials being placed in the biobin that
should not be there) was observed during the trials. On the contrary, they dropped
slightly at one phase during the trial. This had been anticipated by some experts
and goes some way to proving that once compostable plastics are introduced into
the marketplace, missthrows can be avoided if appropriate measures are taken.

Germany already makes considerable efforts to recover waste, and existing collection
schemes have good recovery rates. Householders¿ acceptance of a `new system¿
for the disposal of certain plastics was therefore an important issue. However,
it can be concluded that, based on an existing collection system (biobin), consumers
were willing to differentiate plastic packaging and dispose of the two different
types separately.

During the project, approximately 85% of the bioplastic packaging was treated
biologically, including 25% home composting (Table 3). The final compost was
applied on fields close to Kassel and had no distinguishable differences from
compost prepared without bioplastic input.¹⁰

All the results seem to support the idea of introducing a collection of certified
compostable packaging using an existing biobin system. There was early criticism
about the limited range of products available with compostable packaging in
the shops (predominantly compostable carrier bags and fruit and vegetable packaging).
However, it should be pointed out that the situation in Kassel provided a realistic
picture of how this new kind of packaging would be introduced into the marketplace.

Customers may be willing to pay more for environmentally friendly packaging

MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS

More or less in parallel to the Kassel project, compostable packaging was introduced
into shops in other countries without further scientific evaluation. Most projects
started during 2002 when, in the UK, Sainsbury¿s and Tesco supermarkets began
their first attempt with the slogan `organic food comes in organic packaging¿.
Since then, the range of applications has broadened with applications increasing
by some 30%¿50% per year ¿ although at several thousand tonnes, annual amounts
are still small compared with traditional plastic packaging.

As in other European countries when compostable packaging was introduced to
the market, a round-table has been set up in the UK. In the UK Compostable Packaging
Group (UKCPG), stakeholders from industry, trade, science and officials from
government departments and agencies meet to develop a common consensus for the
controlled introduction of compostable packaging to the UK market and the related
waste management issues. Like Germany and the Netherlands, the `compostable
logo¿ represents a basic communication tool in UK, where the Composting Association
provides the certification and the logo.¹¹

Similarly, an increase in use from a comparatively low basis can be observed
in all countries where retailers have begun to feature compostable packaging.
One exception is the Netherlands, where growth rates are significantly higher
and companies in the food and vegetable sector are preparing for the complete
replacement of conventional plastics by compostable packaging. Some of these
Dutch companies also deliver to several countries in central and western Europe.

The Netherlands represents a good example of a pragmatic implementation strategy
where all the stakeholders were invited to participate in a round-table approach.
After reviewing the Kassel results and testing that products certified according
to EN 13432 could be processed in Dutch composting plants, a decision was taken
to implement the same certification model and open up the biobin to compostable
packaging in a stepwise approach. Initially bioplastic bags were allowed, then
carrier bags were added and finally, from early 2005, all kinds of certified
compostable packaging are allowed. Consumers will be informed about the innovation
in a communications campaign prepared by the Belangenvereniging Composteerbare
Producten Nederland (BCPN; the Dutch division of the bioplastics associations)
in co-operation with VNG, the Dutch association of municipalities.

Italy and Switzerland represent countries where compostable packaging has been
introduced for some years ¿ one after the other and without `official¿ communication
campaigns (in the case of Switzerland, with a `round-table¿ approach). The leading
retail chain Migros in Switzerland started to use compostable bags for carrots
and potatoes in 2002 and has since extended the product range to compostable
catering products, while Italy¿s Esselunga and Iper markets have been using
bioplastics for shopping bags and packaging for pasta and salad.

85% of the bioplastic packaging was treated biologically

THE PICTURE IN GERMANY TODAY

When the Kassel project ended in spring 2003, very little happened in German
supermarkets due to the high costs of the new kind of packaging and the complicated
legislation calling for a nationwide collection system. The only existing system
¿ the Green Dot system ¿ does not offer specific services for compostable packaging
but charges the same fee as for traditional plastic packaging (i.e. around E1.20/kg).
As compostable packaging currently costs more than conventional packaging, this
means an additional burden to interested companies. (For more information on
the Green Dot, see WMW January¿February 2005.)

Based on the Kassel experience, there are efforts to implement a collection
system using the biobin. This will result, in the long run, in costs of around
E0.40/kg, thus supporting the use of compostable packaging. In addition, the
increasing production of bioplastics means that their prices will fall whereas
the prices for conventional plastics are expected to continue to rise. Given
the cost-effective recovery for bioplastics, compostable packaging will probably
be economically competitive in the near future (Figure 2).

The German Parliament (the Bundestag) and the Assembly of the German States
(the Bundesrat) have approved a regulation in the German packaging ordinance
granting far-reaching privileges to certified compostable packaging, and thus
enabling a collection system to be implemented in parallel to the increasing
amounts being used. Market experts expect an almost immediate and fast-growing
market for compostable packaging in Germany. All the large retail chains have
prepared for the introduction of compostable packaging ¿ ALDI¿s carrot bag test
in late 2004 in southern Germany is only one example.

A good example of the rising interest is the additional `bioplastics¿ show
at the world¿s biggest packaging trade fair `Interpack 2005¿ (www.interpack.com)
in Duesseldorf, Germany (21¿27 April 2005). Based on a special agreement with
the trade fair, some 25 exhibitors will present the latest status of the technology
and describe the development of the technical framework during several workshops.

JUST A MATTER OF TIME

Compostable plastics and packaging are ready for the market. In many applications
in the food sector (especially for fruit and vegetables), increasing amounts
are being used in a number of EU countries and worldwide. The technical and
legislative framework has been developed at European and international levels.
It seems possible to recover certified compostable plastics in composting plants
without changing the process, and customers react positively to this innovative
type of packaging. It therefore seems just a matter of time before this technology
conquers a significant market share.

Jöran Reske is a Biologist at Interseroh
GmbH. He also serves as the Vice Chair of IBAW International Biopolymer Association,
a Berlin-based association with some 35 member companies worldwide.

Fax: +49 2203 9147 252

e-mail: j.reske@interseroh.de

web: www.ibaw.org

NOTES

1. Witt, U. et al., Biodegradable polymeric materials ¿ not the origin
   but the chemical structure determines biodegradability. Angewandte Chemie
   International Edition, 38 (10), 1999. pp. 1438¿1442.



2. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994
   on packaging and packaging waste. Official Journal, L365, 31/12/1994,
   pp. 10¿23; and Directive 2004/12/EC of the European Parliament and of the
   Council of 11 February 2004 amending Directive 94/62/EC on packaging and packaging
   waste. Official Journal, L47, 18/2/04, pp. 26¿32. http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21207.htm



3. BS EN 13432 (Working Group CEN TC261 SC4 WG2), ASTM D6400¿03 (WG ASTM D-20.96),
   DIN V 54900

   (WG DIN FNK AA 103.3).



4. BS EN 13432:2000 Packaging. Requirements for packaging recoverable through
   composting and biodegradation. Test scheme and evaluation criteria for the
   final acceptance of packaging. BSI, 2000. http://www.bsi-global.com



5. Environment
   and Sustainable Development: BIODEGRADABLE AND COMPOSTABLE POLYMERs [accessed
   1 March 2005]



6. Reske, J. Development of an international network for the certification
   of compostability. Invited lecture given to the Annual Meeting of the
   Environmentally Biodegradable Polymer Association Taiwan (EBPA), held Taichung,
   Taiwan, December 2003.



7. Reske, J. Biodegradable polymers in Europe: framework, applications and
   market development. Invited lecture given to 8th World Conference on Biodegradable
   Polymers and Plastics, held Seoul, June 2004.



8. Reske, J. Market introduction of compostable packaging.

   In: Biodegradable polymers and plastics, E. Chiellini (editor). Kluwer
   Academic, 2003.



9. Estermann, R. Introducing the biodegradable bag into Switzerland¿s organic
   waste collection. Waste Management World, November/December 2003. pp.
   62¿66.



10. Klauss, M. and Bidlingmaier, W. The Kassel project ¿ use and recovery
    of biodegradable polymer packaging.

    www.modellprojekt-kassel.de/eng/seiten/home_eng_frameset.html
    [accessed 1 March 2005]



11. www.compost.org.uk/dsp_news_detail.cfm?id=170&link=news
    [accessed 1 March 2005]

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